Drug Identification with Gas Chromatography Mass S Essay Example For Students

Medication Identification with Gas Chromatography Mass S Essay pectrometryDrugs are utilized regularly by individuals from numerous points of view for a wide range of reasons. Medication testing has gotten a standard in pre-work testing, on account of the wide assortment of medication use in todays society. Medications tried for by a potential business incorporate Cocaine (split), Amphetamines (precious stone), Opiates (codeine, morphine, heroin), PCP (phencyclidine), and Marijuana. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry is utilized to test hair and pee tests of conceivable medication abusers or employment candidates, and it is the best strategy for the testing of medication use. Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry are two unique strategies for recognizing concoction substances, and the two instruments have be coupled together to play out a profoundly correlative expository capacity. The gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer have hypotheses behind how their procedures work, and explicit legal applications for their instrumentation. The history and hypothesis of the gas chromatography began once again forty years prior with the development of the slim segment. The gas chromatograph offers fast and high-goals detachments of an exceptionally wide scope of mixes, with the main limitation that the dissected substance needs to have adequate instability. The hypothesis behind the mass spectrometer is to utilize the distinction in mass-to-charge proportion (m/e) of ionized iotas or atoms to isolate them from one another. Mass spectrometry is along these lines valuable for quantitation of particles or atoms and furthermore for deciding synthetic and basic data about particles. Particles have unmistakable discontinuity designs that give basic data to recognize basic segments. The blend of the gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer is extremely simple, in light of the fact that both instrument should be adjusted in abundance and both are dissected in the gas stage and have similar example levels and temperature ranges. The ! most significant component of the tw o instruments being coupled is that they perform integral logical functions.The instrumentation of the gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer is mind boggling. The instruments parts incorporate an injector, a transporter gas, a segment, a separator, an ionization source, mass separator, and a particle locator. The injector is situated on the gas chromatograph and is the place the example gas is infused into the instrument to begin the procedure. The example gas is then blended in with a bearer gas, which is the versatile stage in gas chromatography. The blend continues into the narrow segment where the partition of the example starts. The slender section is 15 to 60 meters long and . 25 to .75 millimeters in distance across. Once through the slender section the now isolated example enters the separator. The separator interfaces the gas chromatograph with the mass spectrometer, and isolates the transporter gas from the isolated parts of the blend. The example currently enters the mass spectrometers ionization source where the example particles are divided and made into! decidedly charged particles by high pillar electrons. The divided decidedly charged particles presently go through the mass separator, which is an attractive field. The mass separator disengages the divided example into their masses. The disconnected masses are perused by a particle indicator and afterward showed as a mass chromatogram. A mass chromatograph is a chart of particle m/e bounty corresponding to time. The gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer or GC/MS creates a mass chromatogram of a substance that demonstrations like a unique finger impression for a compound substance. The possibility that a GC/MS delivers a unique mark for a compound substance makes this instrument an alluring choice when testing for sedate distinguishing proof, and testing individuals for tranquilize use. Measurable researchers discover a medications recognizable proof by utilizing a GC/MS, and utilize the mass chromatogram in correlation with the test aftereffects of another obscure mass chromatogram. In the event that the two mass chromatograms coordinate, at that point the tried synthetic substance is that sedate it was coordinated against. Another application is utilizing a GC/MS and testing hair or pee tests of individuals to decide whether the subject uses drugs. Medications tried for might envelop such notable medications as Cocaine (break), Amphetamines (precious stone), Opiates (codeine, morphine, heroin), PCP (phencyclidine), and Marijuana. Today, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry has become the chief method for partitions and examination of medications. .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 , .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 .postImageUrl , .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 .focused content zone { min-tallness: 80px; position: relative; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 , .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3:hover , .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3:visited , .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3:active { border:0!important; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 { show: square; change: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-progress: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; mistiness: 1; progress: haziness 250ms; webkit-change: obscurity 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3:active , .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3:hover { murkiness: 1; progress: darkness 250ms; webkit-change: haziness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 .focused content territory { width: 100%; position: relati ve; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 .ctaText { fringe base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; text-enrichment: underline; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; outskirt: none; outskirt span: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; textual style weight: striking; line-stature: 26px; moz-outskirt sweep: 3px; text-adjust: focus; text-improvement: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/basic arrow.png)no-rehash; position: supreme; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e4 2de7cffbc1d3 .focused content { show: table; tallness: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u5d4051eb49297544f3e42de7cffbc1d3:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: David Nouhian December 21, 1998 Essay Employers will regularly test planned representatives for sedate use. They test with either hair or pee tests of the planned representative, and run the sample(s) through a GC/MS to decide whether the conceivable worker has utilized medications. They decide this by contrasting mass chromatograms of known medications and that of the test. The gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer is known as the best asset to demonstrate the distinguishing proof of a concoction substance, for example, a medication, as a result of the mass chromatographs that demonstration like a unique mark of a synthetic substance.

Rain Shadows - Orographic Lifting and Precipitation

Downpour Shadows - Orographic Lifting and Precipitation Mountain ranges go about as obstructions to the progression of air over the outside of the earth, pressing dampness out of the air. At the point when a package of warm air arrives at a mountain go, it is lifted up the mountain slant, cooling as it rises. This procedure is known as orographic lifting and the cooling of the air frequently brings about huge mists, precipitation, and even rainstorms. The wonder of orographic lifting can be seen on a practically regular schedule during the warm summer days in Californias Central Valley. East of the lower regions, enormous cumulonimbus mists structure each evening as the warm valley air rises upslope on the west side of the Sierra Nevada mountains. For the duration of the evening, the cumulonimbus mists structure the obvious blacksmith's iron head, flagging the advancement of a rainstorm. The early nighttimes at times bring lightning, showers, and hail. The warm valley transports, making shakiness in the climate and causes tempests, which presses the dampness from the air. Downpour Shadow Effect As a package of air ascends the windward side of a mountain run, it has its dampness pressed out. In this manner, when the air starts to dive the leeward side of the mountain, it is dry. As the cool air dives, it warms and extends, diminishing its chance of precipitation. This is known as the downpour shadow impact and is the essential driver of leeward deserts of mountain ranges, for example, Californias Death Valley. Orographic lifting is an interesting procedure that keeps the windward sides of mountain ranges soggy and loaded up with vegetation however the leeward sides dry and fruitless.

Freelancers Make Up 34 Percent of the U.S. Workforce. Heres How to Find, Hire and Manage Them.

Freelancers Make Up 34 Percent of the U.S. Workforce. Heres How to Find, Hire and Manage Them. Are you looking for a new hire? Or new talent in a specific area of expertise?Maybe you’re just wondering why it’s so difficult nowadays to find the right employees.If you have these or other related questions, then we have the answer for you.Many, if not all, of these questions can be answered in just one word.Freelancing.That’s the new buzz word.It’s being talked about everywhere. In campus, business offices, homes, bars, everywhere. The reason is simple. More and more people are becoming freelancers.In a span of 5 years, the non-freelance U.S. workforce grew by 2% (from 103 million to 105.3 million). Over the same period, the freelance workforce grew by 7% (53 million to 56.7 million).WHY DO PEOPLE CHOOSE FREELANCING?The number of people choosing to become freelancers is going up. Upwork, a leading freelancing platform says that freelancing is a movement. And that might be right.But what is it that makes freelancing so appealing?What benefits does it provide to make more p eople ditch the traditional 8-5 job?We have the answers.Need for a Better Work-Life BalanceIf there is one reason common among freelancers about their move from the 8-5 job, is this one. Anyone who feels like he is not getting enough time for himself is choosing the only alternative.The study which showed the 7% freelancing growth also found out that those freelancing out of choice are more than those doing it out of circumstances. Source: UpworkThat is a big sign of the freedom being desired by many and chosen by those who really want to “have a life.” And once they get a taste of it, they cannot even think of turning back.51% of freelancers say that they cannot go back to the traditional job no matter how much money they are offered. This is because of the flexibility they enjoy.With flexibility, you get the perfect, or almost perfect, work-life balance.Freelancing jobs allow you to plan your own schedule and work at your own pace.And this is not something you may lose simply because a manager doesn’t like you. This is simply the norm and clients understand that.At the same time, you get to have time to improve your skills as you see fit.In the traditional job, your employer may ask you to take the training which is relevant to his company.Although you may take it to stay competitive and grow your career, it’s obvious that not all employees love their jobs. They therefore don’t really want those tra inings.Unfortunately, they can’t take the training they want.But with freelancing? You can do that.As a freelancer, you almost always offer services which you’re naturally good at.The skills improvement you undertake is in line with what you want and love doing.Companies Seeking to Cut CostsAs freelancers enjoy the freedom and all the benefits it comes with, companies are also enjoying it.This is however true only for those who have already adapted. Others are still looking from the other side of the fence.More and more companies are realizing that the traditional process of hiring and maintaining employees is costly. And since one of the ways of being profitable is by cutting costs, why not stop doing the traditional?In the traditional, a company would pay to run job ads and spend money with recruiting agencies.In the modern, it’s cheaper since it only posts a job ad on a freelancing platform and gets all the details of the freelancer in one place.Also, every freelancer is re sponsible for his own skills development. The clients on the other hand, are free to work with different freelancers.Therefore, a freelancer has to get better so as to become competitive. And this is at his own expense. The client doesn’t spend any money or time to improve the freelancer.There are thus some savings for the companies working with freelancers. And money saved can do many other things.So, as companies grab the opportunities offered by freelancing, the numbers can only get bigger.Growth of the Collaborative Spaces IndustryThere was once a big challenge for freelancers and it revolved around working from home.Working from home had several challenges such as:Too many distractions (TV, bed, fridge, kids if any, neighbors etc)LonelinessLack of motivationBoredom etc.That second challenge on the list was a big one for many. And as entrepreneurs always solve problems, someone came up with a solution. The solution actually exceeded expectations.The solution was shared work sp aces or collaborative spaces.These are public spaces designed to serve as offices for individuals who are not working for the same employer. These spaces will typically have different offices, shared internet and office equipment like printers and even a cafeteria.The goal is to make the freelance work interactive and in the process, also more productive.In such spaces, freelancers will interact, share ideas, and maybe even form a company by bringing their strengths or skills together.Here is a video of one such spaces which shows how much this has been embraced. And the number of collaborative spaces has been increasing.It’s no longer difficult to find such places and so having a fully-functional office as a freelancer becomes easier.Freelancers don’t have to spend much money setting up a home office. And with the additional company, that means more people opting for this alternative.Technology Favors ItTechnology has proven to be a big player in determining the direction life takes. From industrial revolutions to how we communicate. And there is no stopping it.At the moment, there are many fears that technology will take away jobs.It has been argued that those fears are unfounded. The counter-argument is that the only thing to change is the kind of skills required.But there are more changes than those about job types.Recently, there has been a push towards more teamwork and technology has faithfully worked hard to facilitate this. It is in this facilitation that freelancing has benefited.Some companies have expanded to remote regions and have needed to collaborate with their remote staff. Others have simply eased up to the requests for work-from-home options.Those employees working from home still need to be in touch with those in the office.With necessity being the mother of invention, solutions were developed. Today, remote teams can work together so well as though they were in the same room.Group collaboration tools are available to help teams work ef ficiently together despite the distance. Internet speeds have also been increasing making communication easier.This is the environment freelancing needs so as to flourishâ€"and it’s getting it.As big companies get their needs met by technology, freelancers also get sorted by the same technology.If they had to develop their own, that would be a big challenge for the industry. But riding on the existing technology, things happen faster and easier.Protections Through LegislationAs freelancers began offering their services to clients, they faced more challenges than that of getting contracts.One such challenge was working and not getting paid.With vague laws concerning freelancing, many clients took advantage and occasionally exploited those venturing into the field. But things have changed.Freelancers have increased in number and one of their biggest unions, the Freelancers Union currently boasts of over 450,000 members. With a union comes strength. And when the union has many member s, the strength is increased.This is probably the reason the union was able to get the New York state to pass the Freelance Isn’t Free Law in 2017. This law introduced measures to ensure freelancers got paid for the work they do.This is encouraging because it means that the industry is being recognized for the contribution it makes to the economy. With over one third of the workforce freelancing, they are sure to be recognized.When recognition gets to the point of protection by law, you can be sure there’s no stopping.WHERE TO FIND FREELANCERSIf you are a business owner or work in the HR department of a company, consider tapping into this mass of skill. And to help you do so, here are some of the places you can find freelancers.Some of these places are already known to you. But if you were never familiar with the freelancing style of work, you may have failed to notice them.LinkedInThis is a social media platform primarily designed and intended for networking. On LinkedIn, inter actions are usually business-oriented though not lacking the social aspect of life.Users of this platform create a profile, provide some details about themselves and stay open for connections.The amount of details you can put in your profile is a lot. In fact, recruiters and HR managers often look up a job applicant’s LinkedIn profile as part of the screening process.The same way the traditional professional has an account on this platform, is the same way a freelancer does.For freelancers, they use this as a marketing tool, pretty much like everyone else. From the connections they make, it is their hope that business opportunities may arise.You can search for freelancers on this platform, check out their profiles and if you’re happy with what you see, connect with them.UpworkUpwork is one of the most popular platforms for freelance work. It provides both freelancer and clients an environment where they can build a business.Upwork freelancers create a profile which gets populate d by the jobs done.Client reviews are provided to help other clients decide on who to hire. The platform provides a built-in communication and payment system to make running the business both secure and convenient.There is also a community area to discuss anything from platform issues to success tips.ToptalToptal is another platform for those seeking freelance opportunities and services.One unique feature of the platform is that it’s not open for all the masses like Upwork. Toptal specializes in the best of the best of freelancers.They seek to have only 3% of top freelance talent. That means that joining as a freelancer is not easy.It offers five areas of services: developers, designers, finance experts, project managers and product managers.This website targets the companies looking for the best talent. The screening has been done and businesses can be sure that the person handling their project is both skilled and experienced.Remote-only Job BoardsAnother place to find freelance talent is on job boards specializing in remote jobs. These have cut out a niche for themselves and are providing interested members access to specific types of jobs.Different from the traditional job board, these center on freelancing jobs.Companies posting jobs on the traditional job board require face-to-face interviews and reporting to an office. On the other hand, those posted on remote-only job boards are purely of the freelancing type.Whether the company hiring is located next door or in a different state, freelancers will be working from a location of their choice.Some remote-only job boards you can use to get freelance talent are Flexjobs, We Work Remotely and Working Nomads.HOW TO BEST WORK WITH FREELANCERSOnce you choose to have a freelancer join your team or work with you individually, there are some things you should take note of.Freelancers work with you and not for you. As such, it would be inaccurate to think of them as your employees.This shift in mindset should gui de you to treat them differently from how you would treat an employee.Although the normal employee should also be treated with respect, freelancers can more easily terminate a contract compared to an employee.Moreover, on the freelancing platforms, any review you get from a freelancer is visible to others.If you therefore had a bad working relationship with one, another freelancer may read the review and decide not to work with you.To help you have a good time working with them, here are five things to remember:1. Communication is Very ImportantCommunication is not only important in romantic relationships but also in business relationships. And communication is not merely passing the message. Good communication includes ensuring the other person understands what you have to say.That means you have to use the right words, check the tone of your voice, avoid capital letters when typing etc. And just as you seek to ensure they understand you, also ensure you understand them.Give them a s much information as you think they need and be open to any questions they may have.Explain whatever needs explaining so that whatever work is being done can be done as per your needs.2. Set Clear ExpectationsAs you discuss the job itself, it’s a good idea to give a background of where your company is at. Let them know what necessitated the project you’re undertaking with them.With the background info, now tell them what you expect their work to look like. Whether it’s a written work or created image, it will only be beneficial to you if it’s made with the bigger picture in mind.Be very specific about the deliverables.If it’s a magazine for example, specify the number of pages designed, the layout and even colors used.If it’s writing, specify the length of the writing, the perspective, references, fonts, formatting etc.When you have clear expectations, you minimize misunderstandings and avoid unnecessary conflicts.3. Build the RelationshipDespite the relationship betwee n you and the freelancer being contractual and often short-lived, it can still be cultivated.As long as you want the best results from the work, you should consider developing a good working relationship.Many freelancers are skilled in more ways than one. They often have skills which they don’t publicize because those are not their main ones. But these skills can be used to improve the quality of the work.If you have a good relationship with the freelancer, it’s easy for him to do a little more than the contract demands. If the relationship is not good, why should he do more than is expected of him?Consider the below tips for building the relationship:Talk about non-work matters â€" as you talk about work, deliberately but gently switch topics to social matters. If he lives in a different location, ask him about life in his location. Tell him some of the things you like e.g. sports and find out what he loves.Just because you’re looking for his services doesn’t mean that is a ll you can talk about.Listen actively â€" as he tells you about himself and anything else he says, be attentive. Do not ask to be told about something then interrupt when being responded to. Furthermore, people love talking with people they know are sincerely listening.Show appreciation â€" for any good work done, always appreciate the effort put in. This is one way for you to develop value for people. Appreciating people helps you see the importance of working with others. Being appreciated will make them like you more. And the more they like you, the more likely they are to go the extra mile in the work they’re doing for you.Develop emotional intelligence â€" emotional intelligence plays an important role in good communication. Essentially, it is the ability to be aware of both your emotions and those of the other person. This helps you be sensitive towards them and avoiding to say or do what may be hurtful towards them.4. Provide FeedbackFeedback is always welcome, especially i n the freelancing world. Whenever you have received the finished work, tell the freelancer your thoughts of it.If you’re happy with it, go ahead and make it known to him. In case you would like changes to be made, let him know it.The importance of feedback to freelancers helps them in at least two ways:Deliver higher quality work â€" freelancers are always seeking to provide value to their clients. As such, getting feedback from you on the work they have delivered helps them gauge your satisfaction.In case you’re not satisfied with it and would like certain aspects worked on, go ahead and tell them. They will willingly make the necessary changes. Just remember the first two tips given in this section i.e. communicate well and be clear with your expectations.Improve their skills â€" remember that freelancers take it upon themselves to improve their skills? One of the ways they do it, or at least know which skills to improve on is through your feedback.Consider that working with a freelancer you’ve worked with in the past is always better. This is because they already know your work and your expectations.Therefore, if you give them feedback and they improve their skills, you’ll likely be among those benefiting.5. Embrace TechnologyBecause technology favors the freelancing work style, you will have to embrace it too so as to work with freelancers.The freelance work can be done from anywhere in the world. And with the need to keep things flowing smoothly, here are the four main ares you need to get covered for a good working relationship.Communication â€" we have already seen the place of communication in this relationship. To make communication possible and convenient, familiarize yourself with popular teleconferencing and videoconferencing tools.File sharing â€" rarely will you work with someone else without sharing files. Whether they are documents, pictures, or computer code, you must know how to get them to your freelancer.Freelancing platforms usuall y provide an internal service for convenience. But if you prefer, other tools outside of the platform can also be utilized. A common way of sharing files is Dropbox. Others are Google Drive and Microsoft’s OneDrive.Project management â€" if you have a big project and several people are working on it, things can get tricky. Team members may not know what exactly has been covered and what is still pending. Other may have overlapping tasks.To avoid this, it’s best to utilize project management tools. You can check out Asana and Trello. These are very popular and have many features which can help you accordingly.Payment â€" after all is said and done, this working relationship is a business transaction. You will therefore be paying for the services you are offered. How do you do it?If by any chance you live in the same location as your freelancer, you can agree to meet and pay him by check. If that is not possible, you can use Paypal to send him the money you owe him. You can also u se the payment methods incorporated into the freelancing platforms.CONCLUSIONThe freelancing work style is growing in popularity and you’re better off adapting quickly.There are benefits for you as a business too. As there have been disruptions in industries, freelancing is definitely a disruption changing how companies acquire and retain talent.Use the knowledge shared here to strategically position yourself for lower costs and higher profits.

The Abstract Of Figurative Language Essay - 1674 Words

Context is Everything It is clear that as representational theory opposes enactive theory, so does modernism oppose postmodernism. The question is: Which is more accurate? To this question, I turn to poetry. Poetry (and other forms of art) are able to take words that are pragmatically nonsense and create a sense of meaning out of them. Of course, I am making sweeping generalizations of poetry, and not all poems are pragmatic nonsense so I must clarify. When I speak of poetry and art, I am speaking specifically about the figurative language used within them--language that disallows its readers to create internal representations. Going by representational theory, and a modernist approach, figurative language in poetry would fail to be perceived and would not present its â€Å"unique truth,† and thus be â€Å"bad art.† The representational theory states that for every unique object there is a unique perception, and thus it follows the modernist approach that words (object/signifier) have a singular significance (perception). In representational theory, the context of the words and the subject’s knowledge of prior things that are similar to the object does not influence the perception of the object. The word and its meaning are independent of the subject’s prior knowledge (culture), and the object’s context (environment). The figurative language would fail to be perceived because the words presented in figurative language are nonliteral and do not carry meaning outside of the poem, andShow MoreRelatedFigurative Language And The Language1305 Words   |  6 Pagesphenomena, one of which is figurative language. 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No one can live in thisRead MoreFigurative Language Essays1135 Words   |  5 PagesFigurative Language and Imagery ENG 340 Creative Writing Whenever you describe something by comparing it with something else, you are using figurative language. Figurative language is the use of language to describe something by comparing it to something else. It serves many linguistic purposes. It allows people to express abstract thoughts. It creates tone and communicates emotional content. The ability to use figurative language in writing can make a poem or story more enjoyable for the readerRead MoreCritical Thinking Assignment 2 Essay855 Words   |  4 Pages#2 Critical Thinking Critical Thinking – Assignment #2 In any story there are two types of language, figurative and literal. Language is, of course a necessary factor of any story. Without Language, an author could not tell the story. The author usually uses a combination of these two languages. Together, these languages characterize the author’s style. Literal language means exactly what is says, literal. It employs the primary meaning of a term or expression. It is actualRead MoreA Reflection in Sylvia Plaths Mirror1013 Words   |  5 Pagesmirror she is (pg 156). Plath develops the character of the mirror, and the woman this mirror observes, through the personification of the mirror. Plath’s Mirror, maneuvers through figurative language, free verse form, personification, and metaphor. The primary language of Mirror is figurative. Figurative language is defined by Clugston (2010) as â€Å"the use of words in ways they are not normally used in order to create a distinct imaginative effect or impression† (10.3). â€Å"I am silver and exactRead MoreAnalysis of William Faulkners Nobel Prrize of Literarure Speech1012 Words   |  5 PagesStockholm on December 10, 1950, Faulkner uses a powerful tone and effective rhetorical devices to convey his purpose. In his Nobel Prize of Literature acceptance speech, William Faulkner utilizes rhetorical devices such as persuasive appeals, figurative language, syntax, tone, and diction to aid in his effectiveness of his speech. In his speech Faulkner employs ethos and pathos throughout it. In the beginning, he starts his speech by using ethos, speaking of his work and him separately, showing heRead MoreMaxine A Daughter Leaving Home, By Linda Pastan1034 Words   |  5 Pagesof love. Love is an intense feeling of deep affection. Both of these poems exhibit a tough love and show excellent examples of concrete images and figurative language. Along with love, they also show a new meaning of beauty and nature. The poem â€Å"To a Daughter Leaving Home,† by Linda Pastan, showed a great deal of concrete images and figurative language. There was a slight conflict towards the end of the poem, especially when it said, â€Å"I kept waiting/ For the thud of your crash as I/ Sprinted to catch

Narrative Touched The Lives Of Americans - 1344 Words

Through the use of shrewd analyses of the psychology of slavery, his expressive assertions of self, and his remarkable command of style, Douglass’ narrative touched the lives of Americans like no other, revolutionizing slavery forever. In 1688, feelings began to take over reality when four German Quakers settling in Germantown, Pennsylvania issued the first formal protest to abolish slavery in the American colonies. These Quakers, otherwise known as â€Å"friends† and members of The Religious Society of Friends, were among the first great wave of German immigrants drawn to Germantown by the religious beliefs of the founder of the Province of Pennsylvania, William Penn. Like Penn, they believed that the inner light of God was present in all people, even slaves. Through religious values, these Quakers published the first written protest to the American public arguing that slavery was un-Christian and hypocritical (First Protest Against Slavery). Although this protest fail ed to make any immediate changes towards emancipating slavery, it sparked a chain reaction of abolitionist appeals because it wasn’t just word of mouth, it was a written document. The act of publishing documents and newspapers became extremely popular during the abolitionist movement, specifically in the 1830s. Following the religious revivalism that took place during the Second Great Awakening, various authors had taken up the cause of â€Å"immediate emancipation†. Newspapers like William Lloyd Garrison’s theShow MoreRelated Essay on Spirituality in Song of Solomon894 Words   |  4 Pageshad known and forced to live in a land of dark irony that, while promising life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, provided them with only misery. In a situation such as the one in which the slaves found themselves, many people would rely on their religion to help them survive. But would slaves be able to find spiritual comfort within the parameters of a religion that h ad been passed on to them from the slaveholders? In Toni Morrisons Song of Solomon, African-Americans struggle to find a spiritualityRead MoreColor-Blind Racism In America1131 Words   |  5 PagesCarlos Collins Writing Assignment 1 Hair is a basic element of most of our lives, so to many, hair is a trivial thing. However, the fact that we live in a social climate that routinely rejects aspects of communities of color, hair has come to be an increasingly symbolic piece of our racial identities. This is especially true for the black community in the United States. After generations of countering Eurocentric ideologies surrounding acceptability, members of the black community are beginningRead MoreThe Influence Of The Harlem Renaissance On African American Literature1144 Words   |  5 PagesThe Affect of the Harlem Renaissance on African American Literature The second half of the eighteenth century introduced a new expression to the literary world. The new expression was a voice that belonged to the African American writers. The African American writers wrote with a flair and brought a new perspective to the realm of literature. Literature, as America had known it, consisted of works from Christopher Columbus, John Smith, William Bradford, and Mary Rowlandson; these writers capturedRead MoreThe Narrative Of The Life Of Frederick Douglass936 Words   |  4 Pagesof a slave. Through reading The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass I was able to learn the real life accounts of a man who was a slave. One of the things Douglass touched on was the way the white slave owners treated the salves as less than human, something that could be controlled and an inferior race. I was able to connect this idea, to the learnings of my previous education on white people coming to America and their interactions with the Native Americans. I grew up in Saline, a predominantlyRead MoreThe Narrative Of Briton Hammon1583 Words   |  7 Pages1) The narrative of Briton Hammon would be an excellent addition to ENGL 35000. This short story encompasses many of the questions touched on in class that are integral parts of early American literature. There are even parts of this piece that expand onto subjects that the class did not discuss. In looking at the genre, ideas, topics, and my personal reaction to this piece, one is able to understand why the captivity narrative of Hammon would add insight into this American literature course. OneRead MoreThe Agrarian Myth Of The South929 Words   |  4 Pagesnew narratives of the Southern experience. These women possessed a sense of autonomy and diverse experiences as expressed by a generation earlier by African American domestic workers in Atlanta and the â€Å"homogenous† rural, Southern woman. Work, Family and Faith, was edited to provide readers with an accessible introduction to the multiplicity of lives that constructed the supposedly homogenous group of â€Å"rural Southern women†. Oral histories of rural southern women blend to reveal narratives aboutRead MoreNarrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay1306 Words   |  6 PagesFrederick Augustus Washington Bailey (later known as Frederick Douglass) was born a slave in Talbot County, Maryland around the year 1818. He was an African American reformer, writer, and orator. Douglass was one of the few noteworthy heroes who arose from the evils of slavery and impacted the United States and the world in significant ways. After escaping from slavery, he became known for his astounding oratory skills and remarkable antislavery writing. He became an important leader of the abolitionistRead MoreMirrored Worlds1566 Words   |  7 Pagesshown between A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowland son by Mary Rowlandson herself and Our Nig by Harriet E. Wilson. The stories depict the great suffering of two individuals who express similar qualities in their writings; the qualities being that each piece is a captivity narrative, there is a struggle with faith, and a silenced sexual subtext. The first piece by Rowlandson tells the story of a white Puritan woman. She is captured by Native Americans, and goes throughRead MoreThe Life of A Slave Girl by Harriet A. Jacobs Essay1272 Words   |  6 PagesA slave narrative is to tell a slaves story and what they have been through. Six thousand former slaves from North America told about their lives during the 18th and 19th centuries. About 150 narratives were published as separate books or articles most slaves were born in the last years of the slave regime or during the Civil War. Some Slaves told about their experiences on plantations, in cities, and on small farms. Slave narratives are one of the only ways that people today know about the wayRead MoreThe Labor Of Slave Women1512 Words   |  7 PagesMore Than Chains and Toil is a knowledgeable written work as an explanation of servitude in the experience specifically of African American women. Even though forced grunt work was the bases of slavery, very few have the k nowledge of the labor of slave women had to do from the perspective of slave women themselves. The author presents and clarifies the understandings the impact labor-meanings has on women in a moral value perspective. According to Joan Martin, â€Å"moral agency† for slaves meant autonomy

Black History - 954 Words

Javon SOC 101: Introduction to Sociology Instructor: Jeanette Maxey November 11, 2012 Theorists of Choice W.E.B Du Bois Sociology is the study of group behavior through the use of scientific investigation and research (Vissing, 2011). This class has shown so many different views on sociology. It explains how different people see society and how they live and interact with them. My theorist of choice is W.E.B Du Bois, because he laid down the foundation for the study of black sociology and the work of scholars such as E. Franklin Frazier (Vissing, 2011). In this paper I will discuss why I feel that W.E.B Du Bois views align with my personal views. W.E.B Du Bois real name is William Edwards Burghardt and was born†¦show more content†¦He said no man has a right to choose another man friend’s. He wanted the law to enforce against the rich as well as the poor. He wanted the law to enforce against white as well as black. He talks about blacks are not more lawless than a white race. The blacks are more often arrested, convicted and mobbed. Du Bois said he was n’t justice even for criminals and outlaws. Du Bois fought for equal rights for African Americans. He believed that African Americans should have the chance to advance education to develop its leadership. He believed that capitalism was the main cause of racism and he was generally sympathetic socialist causes throughout his life (Bois, W). He fought for the African Americans to get a higher position in the military. Some whites felt that African Americans were not qualified to be officers and some African Americans should not participate in what they consider a white man’s war (Bois, W). Du Bois supported increased civil rights, socialist causes and fought against American injustice both domestically and abroad. He never creased writing and he continued to publish on a wide range of subjects, such as poetry, civil rights, communism, imperialism and its effects on racial inequality. References Bois, W.E.B. Du. (1868-1963). Friesen, Bruce K. (2005). Teaching Sociology. Vissing, Y. (2011). An Introduction to Sociology.Show MoreRelatedBlack History After American History900 Words   |  4 PagesBlack History Month started off, as Black History Week in 1926 in 1976 it became a month. It is known that many minorities have suffered in America, Canada, and the United Kingdom especially African Americans; therefore, a month was created to raise awareness of their culture and the role they played in American history. There are other minorities such as Latinos and the Gay/Lesbian community who have suffered and played a huge role in American history who deserve an annual celebration of achievementsRead More Black History Importance Essay1355 Words   |  6 PagesBlack History Importance The time has come again to celebrate the achievements of all black men and women who have chipped in to form the Black society. There are television programs about the African Queens and Kings who never set sail for America, but are acknowledged as the pillars of our identity. In addition, our black school children finally get to hear about the history of their ancestors instead of hearing about Columbus and the founding of America. The great founding of America brieflyRead MoreBlack History Question1230 Words   |  5 Pages4. Who was the first Black woman to drive a U S Postal stagecoach? @5. Name the first Black to win an elected office in the U. S. 6. Booker T. Washington had dinner with what American president? 7. Who were the Kansas City Monarchs? 8. What is Hoppin John? 9. What actor rapper starred in the movie Men In Black? 10. Representative Maxine Waters represents what state? The Black Heritage Trivia Game Section 4 Page 2 Section 4 Page 2 11. What month is Black History celebrated? 12. ThrillaRead MoreBlack Friday History718 Words   |  3 Pages  Ã‚  Black  Friday  is  the  day  after  Thanksgiving  in  the  United  States,  where  it  is  the  beginning  of   the  traditional  Christmas  shopping  season.  Since  Thanksgiving  falls  on  the  fourth  Thursday  in   November  in  the  United  States,  Black  Friday  may  be  as  early  as  the  23rd  and  as  late  as  the   29th  of  November.  More  recently,  there  is  new  understanding  that  the  term  originates  from  the   theory  that  retailers  traditionally  operated  at  a  financial  loss  for  most  of  the  year  (January   through  November)  and  made  their  profit  during  the  holiday  seasonRead MoreBlack History : America, Not About Negro History914 Words   |  4 Pages From the Ground Up Today we learn about black history in America, not about Negro History. Who tells he story is what makes the difference; the people who lived it VS the people who watched it. Primary source documents tell the stories about what was happening on the ground. These are the best way to teach ourselves about how education was for Negros, the way lawsuits played a role in the civil rights movements, how a â€Å"Battle in Cuba† shaped new men, and how the community came together to get thisRead MoreHistory, Souls Of Black Folk, And Negro History763 Words   |  4 PagesIdentifying the hidden history, Books such as Wonders of the World, Story of Civilization, Outline of History, Souls of Black Folk, and Negro History (para. 22), offer X a more comprehensive African history other than the â€Å"whitened† (para. 19) history of slavery. While enumerating ignored sources of history from his research, X strengthens logos and ethos and connotes a contrast to the setting of this nar rative: many blacks’ contribution of history had been obliterated. Inequalities in history triggered hisRead MoreBlack History, By Sandra Bland1450 Words   |  6 Pagessocial media like every other citizen. That is until just after Christmas of 2014 when she made the decision to speak up about â€Å"the economic crisis burdening young African Americans,† trying to, in her words, inform her readers about black history, or American history as she liked to describe it (Nathan). Sandra Bland, a 28 year old African American, had just received a job interview from her alma mater, Prairie View AM University. Her life seemed to be going smoothly, just received a job offeringRead MoreEssay on History of Black Nurses2355 Words   |  10 Pagesthese programs where white students, blacks were not allowed any education during this time.   Blacks were not given equal rights as the white people, and were denied the right to have an education.   There were many black young women who were very interested in nursing, and were dedicated to pursue their dream, and wouldnt stop trying until they were given equal rights and accepted into these nursing programs.   Some black women would follow along with the black soldiers in the Civil War and provideRead MoreBlack History Should Not Be Celebrated1846 Words   |  8 Pagesit as Black History Month. Black History Month is one of the only national holidays in the United States of America that is for the acknowledgement and honour of African Americans in this its history. It is the time of the year when great African American figures are given praise and taught as â€Å"black history† in the school curriculum. Though its intentions are to celebrate accomplished African-Americans and their contributions, it is a poor method of sharing and learning black history. Black HistoryRead MoreBlack History Of American Education2125 Words   |  9 Pages â€Å"The history of America n education abounds with themes that represent the inextricable ties between citizenship in a democratic society and popular education.†(Anderson) As a result of their skin color, blacks had always been discriminated against in US society. As a result, blacks had become jaded to the harshness of inequality and could not find a plausible way to gain equal footing because they were taught that they were lesser beings than whites. From late 19th century to the end of the 20th

Various Server Applications Various Services-Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Various Server Applications Various Services? Answer: Introducation Cloud computing refers to the computing of a process or basically a software which helps to gain access over various computer related resources like computer network, storage, various server, applications and various services. It is done with the help of internet. Many companies have tried cloud services for continuing their business. Cloud computing is beneficial many ways [1]. The benefits depend on the size of the business, the sector of the business and the strategic goals of the business. The possible benefits that the company S-mart can get using cloud computing are: Low of cost: The process of service on demand or demand when required has helped business to invest on the model based on operational expenditure. Cloud computing has helped in lowering the investments on servers, licenses and softwares. Cloud computing helps a lot in reducing the cost as there is no longer any need of purchasing an own datacenter or keeping an IT team for the maintenance of the data server [2]. Someone having an MSP no longer needs to pay the bills for traveling from one location to another and saves finance time required to travel. S-mart can have huge profits and the annul expenditure of the company decreases. Easy to upgrade and easy maintenance: Allocation of IT professionals for some other works as the cloud provides the server, softwares and network. Each cloud provider has their own IT experts who are solely responsible for the services they provide. The cloud vendors provide the upgraded forms of service, which saves both Time and money [3]. Every time a cloud service provider invests in a new solution it is made available to the cloud user helping them to use the most advanced tools and applications with no extra cost of buying those tools or applications. As the company has a large amount of data and large customer base so it becomes necessary for the company to upgrade its technology used for storing and compiling of data. Therefore, cloud technology provides the company with many benefits by providing it with upgraded technologies. Accessible from any location and from any device: Services provided by the cloud is accessible almost from any location. Users are able to access the important files, data, documents and IT tools from any device having an access to internet [3]. Moreover, clouds provide the required bandwidth making it possible to work online and replicating the office environment thereby helping the employees work more productively. As S-mart has many product lines, it becomes difficult to access the data of those product lines. Cloud services can help in accessing data of different locations siting at one place. Continuation of business: Cloud helps in remote working. During disaster the working procedure of a business continues. During times of natural calamity (rain, flood, show fall) or in cases of theft and technology people have an option of working from different locations even if they are unable to reach the office [4]. Users can simply login to access their work desktop and continue their work, as they would have done in their normal working days. Users can access the files, documents and data present in the cloud provided the users have necessary access codes. Security: Previously the security issues in cloud computing were weak but as technology has made advancements the security related to cloud computing has also increased. There is a saying that cloud computing improves the companies defense. Cloud service providers invest a lot in improving securing their data infrastructure to protect the customers data [5]. Cloud service providers invest in improving the security more and more if they earn profits from the users. S-mart has many data related to customers and their purchases so it becomes important for them to protect the data of the customers. Cloud services provides lot of security measures so the company can use all the security measures to save the data from any types of threats. Risks regarding cloud computing: Theft or Loss of property: Businesses are relying more in storing of data in the clouds. When there is a breach in the cloud or in case of any cyber-attack, the sensitive data in the cloud are accessed [4]. Breach in the services terms and policy may occur. The data if lost will greatly affect the business of the company S-mart Compliance in regulation: The users know that their data are stored in the services providers cloud but still the user is accountable to its customers for any security and integrity issue that affect the users data [4]. The user must know the standard and procedures that they are provided with to mitigate the risks. Location where the data is stored, who can access the data and protection level of the data: A user must know the location of their stored data and the privacy and security laws, which apply to it. Doing this is necessary, as there is a risk of marginalization of the rights of the user [1]. When a user does not have adequate legal protections then the user is liable for any type of security breach. This means unless and until the provider gives in writing then it is not liable for any type of security breach. Privacy and Security of the data: There is always a risk of breach in privacy of the user. Uploading of data to the cloud means trusting on the providers security system. A user must ask the service provider about who has access to the users sensitive data and the physical and logical security [1], which the provider is using to protect the data. Availability of data and continuity of business: Cloud services depends totally on the internet connection. This leads to a risk of poor service by the provider and problems in accessing of the cloud services by the user [5]. This threatens the continuity of business. Loss of data and recovery: Data loss might occur during a time of disaster or in cases of breach. The recovery process totally depends on the capabilities of the service provider. Therefore, the user must know the capabilities of the provider and if the recovery system of the provider is tested or not. In case of any threat or disaster the company might lose the valuable data of the customers. marketing of data can cause difficulties in contacting the customers as the weekly basis data is used by the company for informing the customers and staffs. Keeping records of old data: Whenever a data is stored into the cloud, new data replaces the old data [5]. When the user wants to access the old data then it might become difficult for the user to get the data back. Before storing, any data in the cloud user must talk with their service provider about the retention of the previous data. As there is regular uploading of new data by the company so there is a risk of losing the old data of the customers and their purchase details. Security regarding the environment: Data centers are cloud computing are highly concentrated with computing powers, data and users making it vulnerable to attacks of bots, malwares viruses and many other things [4]. Therefore, a user must know how much the provider is prepared to face these types of difficulties. Lockdown of the providers: When a user uses the service then the provider is in full control of the service. A user has no guarantee regarding the prices of the features provided. There is always a possibility of price hike or doubling of price. The users and their clients depending on the service are bound to pay the increased price [1]. In case the provider server fails then many online operations by the company will get hampered . Designs used for cloud computing: Structural diagram of a storage system in a cloud: Public APIs for data and management Virtual compute servers Logical storage pools Physical Storage Servers Physical Storage Servers Block, file or object storage Object Storage Virtual compute servers Cloud service location 1 Cloud service location n Architecture, Governance, Business continuity Identity, Access Management Service, (Access Control, SSO, Federation, STS, OAuth, User Provisioning, Logging, Auditing) Automated Life Cycle Management Platform as a Service Virtualized Infrastructure Automated Operations Infrastructure as a Service Firewall API, CA, SSL, Encryption, Key management, logging Security Automation Self-Service, Monitoring, Metrics User and App identity, App Security Testing, AuthZ, Logging Data Center Centric (BYOS) Developer Centric Fully Managed Model Security Services- Infrastructure Security Services- Applications Cloud system security design: Cloud Policy Decision Service End User Cloud Policy Admin Service Log/Audit Service Cloud Authentication service Account/Profile Provisioning service Meter/Billing Service Session User Profile Cloud Usage Records Log/Audit Store 3rd Party Auditor Cloud Policy Store Enterprise Registration UI Cloud Provisioning Service Local Authentication UI Cloud Usage Report UI External IDP (Authentication Service External Policy Decision Point External ID Provisioning Service Enterprise Cloud Service Owner Cloud Identity/Access architecture: Justifications of the design: Architect for security-as-a-service Deployment of application in the cloud to co-ordinate multiple services including automation of DNS, load balancer and many other services. Security automation falls in the same category, which includes automation of firewall policies between cloud security zones, provisioning of certificates (for SSL), virtual machine system configuration, privileged accounts and log configuration. Application deployment processes depending on security processes (such as firewall policy creation, certificate provisioning, key distribution and application pen testing) should be migrated to a self-service model [6]. Applying these techniques will help in reducing human touch points and enable the scenario of security as a service. Initially this will to mitigation of threats due to human errors, improve operational efficiency and embed security controls into the cloud applications. The company S-mart should put great efficiency in securing their data base and take a ll the necessary steps required to protect their data stored in the cloud. All the above steps discussed above needs to be followed by the company so as to continue their business without any difficulties. Implementation and practice of sound identity and access management architecture- Addressing should be done by cloud access control architecture to all aspects of user and access management lifecycles for both end users and privileged users user provisioning DE provisioning, authentication, federation, authorization and auditing. A sound architecture will enable reusability of identity and access services for all use cases in public, private and hybrid cloud models [7]. Employing of secure token service with proper user and entitled provisioning with audit trail is a good practice. The first step for extending enterprise SSO to cloud service is Federation architecture. To protect the data, the company should adopt proper techniques of protecting the data. The accessing of the data should be authentic so to do this there are many ways to prevent the access of the data specially the purchase data of the customers. Automate safeguards to provide Advantage to APIs - Deploying of any new security services with an API (REST/SOAP) to enable automation. APIs can help automate firewall policies, configuration hardening, and access control at the time of application deployment [8]. Security of the companys data becomes more secure by use of this technique. Not relying on an IP address for authentication services- As the IP addresses in a cloud lasts for a short time in nature so the user cannot solely rely on them for enforcement of network access control. Log, Log, Log creation of an end-to-end transaction when the security events are logged in by the application. The only reliable data leveraged by forensic engineers to investigate and understand the exploitation of applications is the security events, logs and audit trails [8]. This step is very much necessary for the company to keep track of each and every details so as to keep the customers details safe and secure in case of any vulnerabilities faced by the service provider. Some of the cloud security principles that are to be considered and customized by the cloud architect of S-mart are listed below: Present services in the cloud to follow the least privilege principles. To Guarantee the Isolation between various security zones by use of layers of firewalls - Cloud firewall, hypervisor firewall, and guest firewall and application container. The policies of the firewall should comply with the trust zone isolations standards. Use of End-to-end transport level (SSL, TLS, IPSEC) by applications to secure the transiting data between the applications deployed in the cloud as well as to the enterprise. Using API, compile the Security monitoring in the cloud with existing enterprise security monitoring tools. References: Catteddu D. Cloud Computing: Business, risks and recommendations for information security. InWeb application security 2010 (pp. 17-17). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Kondo D, Javadi B, Malecot P, Cappello F, Anderson DP. Cost-benefit analysis of cloud computing versus desktop grids. InParallel Distributed Processing, 2009. IPDPS 2009. IEEE International Symposium on 2009 May 23 (pp. 1-12). IEEE. Sether A. Cloud Computing Benefits. Browser Download This Paper accounting. 2016 May 18. Carroll M, Van Der Merwe A, Kotze P. Secure cloud computing: Benefits, risks and controls. InInformation Security South Africa (ISSA), 2011 2011 Aug 15 (pp. 1-9). IEEE. Takabi H, Joshi JB, Ahn GJ. Security and privacy challenges in cloud computing environments. IEEE Security Privacy. 2010 Nov;8(6):24-31. Jadeja Y, Modi K. Cloud computing-concepts, architecture and challenges. InComputing, Electronics and Electrical Technologies (ICCEET), 2012 International Conference on 2012 Mar 21 (pp. 877-880). IEEE. Dinesha HA, Agrawal VK. Multi-level authentication technique for accessing cloud services. InComputing, Communication and Applications (ICCCA), 2012 International Conference on 2012 Feb 22 (pp. 1-4). IEEE. Subashini S, Kavitha V. A survey on security issues in service management delivery models of cloud computing. Journal of network and computer applications. 2011 Jan 31;34(1):1-1.

Genetic Engineering Essays (2115 words) - Molecular Biology

Genetic Engineering Genetic Engineering Anti-technologists and political extremists misinform, and over exaggerate statements that genetic engineering is not part of the natural order of things. The moral question of genetic engineering can be answered by studying human evolution and the idea of survival of the fittest. The question of safety can be answered by looking at the current precautions of the industry. The concept that society needs to understand is that with the right amount of time and money genetic engineering will help reduce disease and save countless lives. Many people do not realize that genetic engineering plays a role in many lives through out the world. Genetic engineering includes artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, sperm banks, cloning, and gene manipulation (Goetz 178). Synthetic insulin is now available for use to treat diabetes. This man made insulin has many positive aspects, which include its life span, cost to manufacture it, and the amount that is available. The synthetic insulin lasts two to three times longer than its natural form and costs substantially less to manufacture than to extract it from an animal, primarily pigs. One other benefit is the amount that can be manufactured. In pigs, the scientists need to wait for it to mature to extract the insulin. The synthetic source is completely man made and any amount can be manufactured in large quantities. The replication of insulin is not the only way biotechnology is being utilized. Today people receive synthetic hormones that their body cannot produce such as growth hormones, thyroid, estrogen, and testosterone. Vaccines are also another form of genetic engineering that has been used for many years. Vaccines already protect against disease to a certain extent, but for a virus like HIV, it is too risky to inject somebody with a vaccine. The reason for this is because a vaccine is a solution that contains a dead or weakened virus that has been synthetically prepared. Further work on a HIV vaccine could save many lives and possibly eliminate the disease. This biotechnology makes it possible for more people to live the lives that would not have been available without genetic engineering. Plants are also being genetically engineered. This type of genetic engineering is more commonly accepted, but why? It is no different for a plant to be able to fight off pests then it is for a human to be able to fight off diseases. This is a contradiction, because society is saying that it is all right for a plant to be genetically engineered but not a human. This new technology of genetic engineering dates back to the 1950's. IN 1951 three scientists, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and James Dewey Watson, were credited with the discovery of DNA. Later they were presented the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine in 1962. (Lewin 1) DNA is also known as deoxyribonucleic acid and it carries a living organisms genetic code. The discovery of DNA was the very beginning of genetic engineering. Today the science of biotechnology has evolved to a much higher level, but is still many steps away from completely correcting damaged or diseased genes. The reason is partly to blame on the ignorance of society, because it believes that genetic engineering is wrong. The part of genetic engineering that is wrong is holding back the natural process of science evolution. Some benefits are used in medicine today, but the real benefits will come as genes can be altered more. The real benefit that will help mankind is when bioengineers will be able to replace a cancer or defective gene with a gene that does not have an error in its genetic code. "The new science of genetic engineering aims to take a dramatic shortcut in the slow process of evolution" (Stableford 25). What is meant by the previous quote is that scientists hope to take a gene from an organism and change it so that it will be immune to certain diseases and free from cancer. For example, many years ago small pox was widely spread. Today it is almost nonexistent, because of the evolution of man. The only problem with this was it took hundreds of years for our genetic code to adapt and make our bodies fight it. The moral question of genetic engineering is answered by looking at the advances in medicine. Today the advancements in medicine are evolving at an extremely high rate. If the science of genetic engineering is wrong, then so are the rest of the advances in medicine. The reason is because genetic engineering is just another form of medical advancement. Gene manipulation is not going to be used for any

Balanced Scorecard versus Bottom

Balanced Scorecard versus Bottom In recent years, managers within the hospitality industry have witnessed a proliferation of expectations that must be met for businesses to remain relevant in the current competitive environment (Jones Lockwood 2002). Hotel and resort managers, in particular, are often called upon to balance between the service expectations of customers and the financial expectations of the hotel owners.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Balanced Scorecard versus Bottom-line Approach in Resort Hotel Operations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The balancing of priorities has led managers to adopt a plethora of performance measurement models, including the balanced scorecard and the bottom-line approach (Phillips 2007). The present paper purposes to demonstrate the suitability of the balanced scorecard in assisting hotel and resort managers to balance their priorities, hence refuting the claim that adopting the bottom-line approach is the way to go for these managers in balancing service quality expectations and financial demands of the owners. Extant management literature shows that the balanced scorecard evaluates an organisation’s performance through four perspectives namely â€Å"financial, customer, internal operating processes and learning and growth, and lays emphasis on the comprehensiveness and integrity of evaluation† (Wang et al 2013, p. 25). The bottom-line approach focuses more on an organisation’s net income and financial reports to determine its strengths and weaknesses (Jones Lockwood 2002). Owing to the increasing competitive phenomenon of the hotel and resort industry (Lau et al 2005), an effective and efficient measurement tool must draw on both qualitative and quantitative perspectives (Phillips 2007). More importantly, such a measurement tool must have the capacity to expressively assess service quality attributes (Namkung Jang 2008), as well as the financial performanc e based on the fact that financial management is the backbone of any business (Tsai et al 2011).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this light, the balanced scorecard is better placed to assist hotel and resort managers balance the service expectations of their customers and the financial expectations of hotel owners as it employs multiple perspectives not only to measure organisational success but also to assist in the implementation of effective strategies for future success (O’Fallon Rutherford 2010). Unlike in the bottom-line approach which deals with a single indicator to measure operational success (Jones Lockwood 2002), all the four perspectives of the balanced scorecard can be used to assist hotel and resort managers deal with the conflicting priorities that are largely predicated upon customer service expectations and the financial expectations of hotel owners. For instance, under the financial dimension of the balanced scorecard model, hotel and resort managers should be able to know what types of financial performance they should provide to hotel owners and other stakeholders so as to be successful financially (Evans 2005). Under the customer perspective, managers should be able to develop customer and service quality standards that enhance the vision and strategy of their respective service organisations (Cruz 2007). Again, under the internal business perspective of the balanced scorecard model, managers must have the capacity to develop and implement business processes that will enhance customer satisfaction and service quality. Lastly, under the innovation and learning perspective, managers must develop strategies that will not only ensure the organisation’s ability to change and improve, but also its capacity to enhance service quality offerings and the attainment of financial expectations set by stakeholders (E vans 2005). Available management literature demonstrates that excellent service quality within the hospitality industry not only enables an organisation to differentiate itself from its competitors in the marketplace, but also to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage and promote customer repeat intentions (Ladhari 2009). Arguably, therefore, the bottom-line approach cannot be used by firms within the hotel and resort industry to evaluate these qualitative values since it concerns itself with measuring quantitative (financial) attributes at the expense of service quality attributes (Jones Lockwood 2002).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Balanced Scorecard versus Bottom-line Approach in Resort Hotel Operations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although the measurement tool has received praise for capturing the financial performance of an organisation, hence effectively serving the interests of owners (Tsai et al 2011), it is one-dimensional and backward-looking for its lack to include other performance indicators such as service quality and customer satisfaction (Evans 2005). In the hotel and resort industry, it is imperative for any performance measurement tool to effectively illuminate the service quality and expectations of customers. Available literature demonstrates that â€Å"the benefits of service quality include increased customer satisfaction, improved customer retention, positive word of mouth, reduced staff turnover, decreased operating costs, enlarged market share, increased profitability, and improved financial performance† (Ladhari 2009, p. 308). The customer dimension of the balanced scorecard effectively measures five core variables that are intrinsically related to service quality, namely â€Å"customer satisfaction, customer winning, customer retention, customer profitability, and market and customer shares in the target segmentation† (Wang et al 2013, p. 2 6). In contrast, the bottom-line approach has no capacity to measure service quality attributes despite the fact that they are immensely important in the hotel and resort industry, especially with regard to the factors and benefits mentioned above. To conclude, it is important to underline the argument that the balanced scorecard is a more suitable measurement tool for hotel and resort managers, hence this paper refutes the claim that the hotel and resort industry is becoming increasingly bottom-line focussed. While the bottom-line approach is only able to fulfil the financial expectations of the owners through its financial measures, the balanced scorecard takes into account the financial expectations as well as a host of other qualitative indicators, including service quality and customer satisfaction.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Reference List Cruz, I 2007, ‘How might hospitality organisations optimise their performance measurement systems?’ International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, vol. 19 no. 7, pp. 574-588. Evans, N 2005, ‘Assessing the balanced scorecard as a management tool for hotels’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, vol. 17 no. 5, pp. 376-390. Jones, P Lockwood, A 2002, The management of hotel operations, Cengage Learning, Stamford, CT. Ladhari, R 2009, ‘Service quality, emotional satisfaction, and behavioural intentions: A study in the hotel industry’, Managing Service Quality, vol. 19 no. 3, pp. 308-331. Lau, PM, Akbar, AK, Fie, DYG 2005, ‘Service quality: A study of the luxury hotels in Malaysia’, Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, vol. 7 no. 2, pp. 46-55. Namkung, Y Jang, S 2008, ‘Are highly satisfied restaurant customers really different? A quality perception perspectiv e’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, vol. 20 no. 2, pp. 142-155. O’Fallon, MJ Rutherford, DG 2010, Hotel management and operations, John Wiley Sons, Hoboken, NJ. Phillips, PA 2007, ‘The balanced scorecard and strategic control: A hotel case study analysis’, The Service Industries Journal, vol. 27 no. 6, pp. 731-746. Tsai, H, Pan, S Lee, J 2011, ‘Recent research in hospitality financial management’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, vol. 23 no. 7, pp. 941-971. Wang, YG, Li, YM, Jan, CL Chang, KW 2013, ‘Evaluating firm performance with balanced scorecard and data envelopment analysis’, WSEAS Transactions on Business Economics, vol. 10 no. 1, pp. 24-39.

Chapter questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Chapter questions - Essay Example Future challenges that demand continued and strengthened collaboration include the dynamic nature of health condition that identifies emergence of new complications, need for unity among players in the global health issues, and the factors â€Å"that have encouraged the development of public-private partnerships for health† (Skolnik 359, 360). The public-private partnership refers to a framework in which parties from both public and private sectors collaborate in efforts to ensure more effective health care. The partnership might be valuable because of its pooled interest and resources that can meet different needs that could not be met by the parties if they were to work independently within their sectors’ interest and resources. The private sector, for example, has resources but are not willing to venture into care initiatives with low returns an interest that exist in the public sector. The partnership pools the sector’s interests and resources (Skolnik 350). Addressing the problems requires cooperative action because the problems affect wider regions and across international borders and only collaborative efforts across all the affected regions can tackle the problem comprehensively (Skolnik

Airplane Crash Survival Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Airplane Crash Survival - Assignment Example This research will begin with the list of item collected. The pilot who was among the survivors instructed how to gather all items that had been left after the crush, and listed them down in the order of importance. The items were listed as follows; newspaper for starting fire, liquid lighter for lighting fire, small axe for cutting woods, can of coconut oil and large chocolate bars, which would provide food, a map and compass for direction, extra shirts and pants for the extreme weather. Additionally, large heavy-duty canvas for making a tent, red lipstick for marking the map, lastly the batteries and toothpaste for freshening. After the survival of the plane crush, the pilot stressed that they had to work as team in order to survive in the jungle. Their Primary objective was to survive the extremely cold and snowing weather whilst trying to find help. The author was tasked with the responsibility of fetching woods and setting up fire, while his teammates were tasked with erecting a tent using the large piece of canvas. The following day, their focus shifted to finding help. According to the map that they collected after plane crush, the nearest town was 20 km away. The team tasked the author with role of reading the map and the compass in locating the nearest town since he had some background knowledge in surveying and navigation, while his teammates cleared the bushy forest for their passage.... Concerning leadership, the activity exhibited the fundamental role of leadership in an organization. The presence of a leader, who was the pilot, ensured effective delegation of tasks and provision of guidance in attaining the set objective. The STAR team model The performance of the pilot, the team leader together with the activities of the team members can further be explained with the STAR team model. According to Maginn, the STAR team model seeks to identify what a team leader and team need to focus on. The model combines various teamwork theories such as those proposed in the Tuckman’s model, leadership theories, and theories relating to the surrounding of the team and teamwork (pg 155- 160). The STAR team model focuses on an individual’s strength with the objective to enable the individual attain his/her goals leading to happiness. Thus, the application of the model ensures teamwork, which results to flourishing of individual as they use and develop their strength s. In our activity, the pilot assigned tasks to each survivor based on his or her strengths, which ensured attainment of the set goal. The model also explained that coming together of individual strengths and teamwork creates natural flow of performance and results, which are rewarding to the team. Contribution of members to the outcome of the activity Though every member executed distinctive tasks, the tasks culminated into the success of the team. Specifically my contributions were collection of firewood and lighting of the night fire. I further ensured that the fire kept burning through the night to scare away wild beasts. In addition, my expertise in map and compass reading enabled the team to find the location of the nearest town. Shortcoming in the leadership and

Evolution of Respiratory Systems in Animals

Evolution of Respiratory Systems in Animals Jonathan Codd Respiration in animals is a necessity as it allows the exchange of respiratory gases that are required for survival. There are huge variations in the designs of respiratory systems and each has evolved due to selective pressures in environments, such as food and territory. The evolution of species is driven in part by limited resources and the adaptations in which these can be exploited. This report will describe the evolution from aquatic environments to terrestrial environments as part of this movement, of animals onto land, created a cause for the fast development of newly designed systems in order to support air breathing as oppose to gaining oxygen from water using gills. Lungfish first developed lungs, and the ability to breathe air instead of water, whilst living in aquatic environments and the appearance of air-breathing in fish is the major foundation for terrestrialization. Each species has different requirements due to different techniques of movement and feeding, for exam ple, and respiratory systems are required to support the lifestyle of each species in order to exchange the maximum amount of gas possible. The ability to develop additional processes able to assist in respiration has ensured that the oxygen demands of each animal is met. The respiratory system of animals is crucial for the life as it allows the exchange of gases between an organism and the environment. These respiratory systems have been forced to continually develop new designs depending on new evolutionary pressures from changing environments. Many species have evolved due to the availability of new niches and unexploited resources and thus have been forced to develop supporting mechanisms of respiration. This report examines the evolution of respiration from aquatic environments to the terrestrialization of land and the rapid expansion of respiratory methods that soon followed. The evolution of lungs from gills in the Sarcopterygii lineage has allowed the tetrapod transition onto land and is responsible for the ability to eventually develop fully terrestrial species that are able to respire solely air. Each system must be complementary to the requirements of the species and environment in order to meet the aerobic demands and some species are able to undergo various methods of respiration in order to undergo sufficient rates of gaseous exchange. Each method has been specifically developed for the niche, and uncinate processes have formed in order to assist with ensuring respiration can be as efficient as possible. Introduction The evolution of air breathing was vital in the transition of life from aquatic to terrestrial environments and, therefore the rapid evolution of the animal kingdoms physiology and anatomy in order to exploit all available niches (Graham, 1997). The development of air breathing would not, however, have taken place if the atmospheric composition had not altered during the Phanerozoic era, around 550 million years ago, when the concentration of oxygen showed an increase, likely due to the appearance of large vascular land plants (Ra et al., 2007). The ozone layer was thought to have formed around two billion years ago (Walker, 1978) and is essential for allowing the survival of life on earth by preventing high-energy ultra-violet radiation from entering the earths atmosphere (Parson, 2003). The movement onto land has allowed for a huge expansion in the amount of available niches and therefore caused a rapid radiation in the body plans of animals and a variety of respiratory mechanisms to evolve in support (Ra et al., 2007)    The Importance of Pulmonary Surfactant Lungs differ throughout the animal kingdom as they have evolved for the specific niche of each species; nevertheless one thing they all commonly include is a gas-liquid interface which allows surface tension to arise, causing complications (Daniels and Orgeig, 2003). The pulmonary surfactant system prevents the collapse of respiratory surfaces in lungs due to unequal pressures arising from differently sized alveoli, as well as maintaining a reduced resistance to air flow and improving lung compliance (Daniels and Orgeig, 2003). There is overwhelming evidence that there was a single evolutionary origin of the surfactant system, thought to be from the epithelial cells lining the pharynx (Daniels et al., 2004), due to Surfactant Protein-A (SP-A) or like-structures being present in all the major vertebrate groups; implying that it is an essential pre-requisite for lung evolution (Sullivan et al., 1998). Surfactant has been studied in swim bladders, which have now been shown to be a homol og of the lung, with the original principal function being an anti-adhesive but also with involvement in preventing water from entering the swim bladders or lungs (Daniels et al., 2004) Pulmonary surfactant composition is primarily lipids (around 90%) most of which are phospholipids, and the remaining ten percent is comprised of proteins. (Veldhuizen et al., 1998). There were found to be four types of surfactant proteins (SPs): A, B, C and D which all have varying properties and roles within the surfactant system; SP-B and SP-C were both found to be highly involved in the surface activity due to hydrophobic properties and SP-D is hydrophilic and part of the collectin family (Wà ¼stneck et al., 2005). Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) is the most hydrophobic lipid component and therefore DPPC-rich monolayers are able to sit packed tightly together, ensuring the exclusion of water, however they are not well suited for the expansion of the lungs and so are alternated with mixed monolayers when necessary (Wà ¼stneck et al., 2005). Respiration in Fish Fish evolution has allowed both water and air breathing to arise as a means of gas exchange and as these vary greatly in properties, such as density and the oxygen concentration, the mechanistic pumps must also show great diversity to meet the requirements for effective respiration (Brainerd and Ferry-Graham, 2005). Fish that breathe in water use gills which are highly evolved organs that provide large surface areas and thin barriers between the fishs blood and the aquatic environment, thus allowing for a high rate of gaseous diffusion (Evans et al., 2005). Whilst they show properties for gaseous exchange the gills are multifunctional organs which are also responsible for the loss of ions and nitrogenous waste, therefore fish must also have regulatory mechanisms allowing them to successfully osmoregulate (Evans et al., 2005). As fish are continually moving they all require a buccal pressure pump as well as a suction pump, most likely the operculum, working in tandem to allow for expansion and compression to move water across the gills; the suction pump is more prominent in some species such as the Osteichthyes compared to the Chondrichthyes (Ap and La, 2001). A counter-current method is established due to water flowing in the opposite direction to the movement of blood, with the secondary lamell ae being the site of gaseous exchange (Shelton and Randall, 1962). The counter-current mechanism is required as the content of dissolved oxygen is less in water than it would be in the atmosphere (Ibanez et al., 2008) and thus allows high concentrations of gas to be exchanged, whereas a con-current mechanism would too quickly reach an equilibrium and efficient extraction of oxygen would cease (Brainerd and Ferry-Graham, 2005). There are two hypothesis surrounding the origin of air breathing in fish, one suggests that lungs arose only once at the base of the Osteichthyes, whereas opposing arguments have recently suggested that lungs evolved on at least two separate occasions and instead developed in both the Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii (Brainerd, 1994). Some air breathing fish, such as the Actinopterygian, are able to modify their buccal pump to create a four-pump mechanism, using two expiration and compression cycles, in which expired air is first pumped into the lungs before being compressed out into the atmosphere (Perry et al., 2001). When empty fresh air is inhaled via the expansion of the buccal cavity before finally being compressed into the lungs, this is shown to fully expand and compress and so there is little mixing of expired and fresh air (Perry et al., 2001). Not all air breathing fish show this mechanism as some Dipnoi, lungfish for example, will still ventilate using the primitive two-stroke mechanism (Burggren and Johansen, 1986) and even though there can be mixing of expired and fresh air in the lungs, there has been no significant evidence to suggest that this is any less effective than the four-stroke method as breathing accessories allows the increase in volume of inhaled gases (Brainerd, 1994). Terrestrialisation Lungs were an obvious pre-requisite for the transition onto land but there were many other anatomical and physiological adaptations necessary for tetrapods before they were able to fully terrestrialise and survive free of an aquatic environment (Daeschler et al., 2006). In the late Devonian, terrestralisation occurred as a means of exploring previously unexploited niches and resources through the evolution of tetrapods via the Sarcopterygian lineage, whose habitats were most likely mud-flats neighbouring the waters edge (Graham and Lee, 2004). Tetrapods share common features with both modern day land vertebrates and fishes and the discovery of Tiktaalik rosaea allowed the transitional form to be studied in detail to provide evidence on the necessary adaptations required for terrestrialisation (Sarfati, 2007). The skeleton of Tiktaalik was found to be a lot stronger than that of its sarcopterygii-like ancestors and would have allowed it to support its own body weight in substrate, it also showed a longer snout and loss of bony gill covering but still maintained fish-like qualities, such as well developed gill arches and fin rays which implies that it still spent a majority of time in an aquatic environment (Ahlberg and Clack, 2006). Tetrapod digits were seen to arise from the pectoral fins of Sarcopterygii, although there was seen to be a pattern there remained a few anomalies throughout the development (Sarfati, 2007). When discovered Tiktaalik was a hugely important addition to the fossil record and bridged the gap between fish and tetrapods after confirmation from phylogenetic studies placed it on the Sarcopterygian to tetrapod lineage (Sarfati, 2007). The further anatomical and physiological changes that continued after Tiktaalik were responsible for allowing tetrapods to adopt new mechanisms of feeding and locomotion that were required for survival on land and thus was responsible for a huge step in the necessary radiation of respiratory systems (Clack, 2006). Respiration in Amphibians and Non-Avian Reptiles Amphibians are able to breathe by utilising cutaneous methods, using their skin to exchange gases, which could also suggest that it was an important method of respiration used during the transition onto land (Gans, 1970). [JC1]Some amphibians, that have a large enough surface area to volume ratio, such as certain species of salamanders, will rely solely on cutaneous respiration for gaseous exchange due to an absence of lungs (Feder and Burggren, 1985). Cutaneous respiration is based on an infinite pool of oxygen, through air or water mediums, in what is known as a co-current or open flow and is a passive process as there is a lack of inspiratory or expiratory flow (Burggren and Moallf, 1984). Whilst a few amphibians will rely only on cutaneous respiration, most will just use it as an accessory breathing mechanisms and will have other primary methods of respiration (Brainerd and Owerkowicz, 2006). As a means of understanding the primitive breathing in early tetrapods and air breathing fish, other species of salamanders have been studied. It was found that they use a method similar to the two-stroke mechanism previously described in Dipnoi; in which during inspiration they will expand their buccal cavity in order to create a negative pressure required to draw in fresh air, therefore supporting claims that this is most likely the primite mechanism of respiration seen in Sarcopterygii and early tetrapods (Brainerd et al., 1993). Whilst most air breathers will create a negative pressure to cause air to move into the lungs, frogs and some air breathing fish, are known as positive pressure breathers as they use their buccal chamber to fill with air which they will then actively force into the lungs (Jones, 1982). In frogs this system consists of two valves; the paired nares, which remain open for the majority of the time with the function of connecting the buccal cavity to the external air and the glottal valve which spends the majority of the time closed and is only opened when air is entering or leaving the lungs from the buccal chamber (Jones, 1982). This breathing cycle is most likely to begin with expiration as breath-holding was found to most likely occur during the end of the buccal inspiration (Jones, 1982). Reptiles, are believed to be the first group of animals to involve movements of the ribs in the assisting with lung ventilation (Nielsen, 1961). Aspiration breathing is thought to have arison in amniotes, which includes reptiles and mammals, most of which have tried to eliminate their reliance on costal aspiration by evolving accessory breathing methods to aid in respiration (Brainerd and Owerkowicz, 2006). It is evident that aspiration breathing evolved after the buccal pump mechanisms, however, there have been no transitional forms intermediate between the two found which suggests that aspiration breathing developed abruptly and amniotes soon after lost the ability to utilise a buccal cavity (Brainerd, 1999). Studies in lepidosaurs, established that most have an unidivided pleural cavity, which is also present in amphibians and air breathing fish, suggesting that this is the primitive form and that seperation occurred only later on in evolutionary history (Brainerd, 1999). Crocodiles display many unique features compared to the rest of the reptile group as they use a hepatic pistol to ventilate their lungs by utlising a muscle known as the diaphragmaticus, which is not homologous with any other diaphragmatic muscle (Brainerd, 1999). The liver divides the thoracoabdominal cavity and the diaphragmaticus muscle, orinating from the pelvis and caudal gastralia, is responsible for the expansion of the thoracic cavity by retracting the liver; this creates a negative pressure inside and fresh air is forced in, with inspiration containing an intermediate pause (Brainerd and Owerkowicz, 2006). The multicameral chamber seen in crocdiles allows high aerobic demands to be met, which is vital for their survival, and is only found in few other reptile species (Perry, 1988). Respiration in Avian Reptiles Avian reptiles, more commonly known as birds, use a lung-air sac respiratory system which allows cross-current flow, where air and blood are flowing in the same direction to one another (Scheid and Piiper, 1972). The avian respiratory system is small and compact and the thin barriers are thought to be advantageous during flight but not necessary as the mammalian bat respiratory system is dissimilar but still successful for long migratory flights (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1997). Uncinate processes, which alternate depending on the niche of each bird, are fundamental in the avian respiratory system and assist with the movement of the ribs and sternum, allowing for both inspiration and expiration to take place (Codd et al., 2008). The air sacs are used only for ventilation, with gaseous exchanges taking place as air is passed through the parabronchi, which are thin tubes with openings at each end allowing the uni-directional flow of air, which was found to be unique to avian respiration (Scheid, 1979). The parabronchi are packed into a dense hexagonal array with gas exchange tissue, known as the mantle, surrounding the lumen of each; composing a networks of both blood and air capillaries (Brown et al., 1997). The cross-current system found in birds requires these blood and air capillaries to be in close proximity and arranged parallel to one another in order for diffusion to take place; with the uni-directional flow being studied and found to be of no additional advantage to this cross-current system (Scheid, 1979). There are a total of two inspiratory and expiratory cycles that must occur for the complete flow of air through the lungs (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1997). During the first inspiration air flow is split from the trachea to the caudally grouped air sacs or the dorsobronchi, where it will enter the parabronchi and the gas that remained in the lungs from the previous inspiration is forced cranially (Brown et al., 1997). When the first expiration takes place the air remaining in the caudal air sacs moves through the parabronchi, where gas exchange takes place, and another inspiration forces the air into the cranial air sacs (Brown et al., 1997). To exit the respiratory system, the second expiration forces the air to flow from the cranial air sacs through the ventrobronchi and exits using the trachea (Reece et al., 2015). The trachea involved in avian respiration is made up of complete cartilagenous rings and is found to be around 4.5 times the size of mammalian homologues which allows larger tidal volumes and increased compliance within the system (Reece et al., 2015). There have been no valves discovered in the avian respiratory system and therefore to maintain unidirectional air flow it has been suggested that aerodynamics methods, such as jet flow, must be existing in the system during inspiration, and increased resistance through the intrapulmonary bronchus is used during expiratory flow (Scheid, 1979). Respiration in Mammals The respiratory system in mammals is completely separated from the abdominal cavity and the diaphragm and ribs are both crucial in the mechanism of respiration (Keith, 1905). The muscles of the ribs, such as the intercostals, are required for the expansion of the ribcage, which allows the neccesary generating of negative pressure caused by increased the lung volume for aspiration breathing (Perry et al., 2010). The diaphragm is responsible for the control of inspiration as it is able to contract and elongate the thoracic cavity which creates a negative pressure, thus drawing air into the lungs (Loh et al., 1977). The pericardium is closely bound to the lungs and is connected to the central tendon of the diaphragm allowing the vital pairing of both (Keith, 1905). The elevation of the rib cage, which allows further increase in the available volume for external air to enter the lungs, is also under diaphragmattic control (Loh et al., 1977). The mammalian lung is highly complex and involves lots of branching in order to increase surface area from the trachea, which then splits in series into the primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi and finally the alveoli. There are around 3108 alveolar air sacs which comprise of thin membranes to increase the surface area and allow the ease of diffusion of gases between them and the capillaries (Hoppensteadt and Peskin, 2002). Inspiration and expiration cycling allows the constant renewal of air into and out of the lungs and provides mammalian species with sufficient oxygen to meet the aerobic demands (Weibel, 1984). Respiration in Insects There is a wide variety of mechanisms adopted by insects for respiration due to the huge variation in available niches. All will utilise a network of air-filled vessels, which are known as tracheae and tracheoles, and can be as small as 1ÃŽÂ ¼m in diameter, with most terminating nearby to the mitochondria of cells (Miller, 1966). The tracheal system at rest is filled with fluid which is thought to be actively absorbed by the permeable inner tracheal wall when required for breathing, using active transport or secretion from cells (Wigglesworth, 1953). Experiments have demonstrated that during tracheal compression, which is controlled by an increased pressure inside the exoskeleton, the tracheae noticeably shrink in diameter to aid in air convection and increased diffusion of oxygen into the tissues due to a high pressure build up (Westneat et al., 2003). Spiracles are required at the external and internal barrier in the tracheael system to allow external air through the skin; and previous experiments have found if these are blocked then the insect cannot survive as respiration will cease (Fraenkel and Herford, 1938). Interneurons are essential as they are responsible for the pairing of spiracle movement with ventilation by communicating with the spiracles motor neurones (Miller, 1966). The discontinuous gas exchange cycles present in insects will typically occur in three stages, beginning the closed-spiracle phase where only small amounts of external gas exchange are able to take place (Lighton, 1996). A fluttering-spiracle phase permits oxygen uptake for the diffusion of gases into the tracheael tissues and finally an open-spiracle phase concludes the cycle whilst allowing the release of accumulated carbon dioxide (Lighton, 1996). Ventilation is under endogenously controlled rhythms produced by the central nervous system which allows aerobic respiration rates in flight muscles to be so successful that they can be challenged only by certain species of bacteria (Miller, 1966). During insect respiration air is sucked into the tracheal system by creating negative alterations in internal pressure using the pumping of hemolymph by the heart or the contracting of abdominal muscles, others can include passive diffusion or autoventilation (Westneat et al., 2003). Respiration in Cetaceans Cetaceans have evolved a much more unusual respiratory system to any terrestrial mammal, as the nasal passageway has moved to a more dorsal position to allow the exclusion of water from the system and ease of breathing as they surface (Thomas and Kastelein, 1991). A nasal plug, made up of nasal plug muscle, connective tissue and adipose tissue, is responsible for the seperation of the internal and external environment and is retracted anteriolaterally for respiration by bilaterally paired nasal plug muscles (Thomas and Kastelein, 1991). The lung size of cetaceans varies depending on the depth of the dives undertaken, due to the variety of pressures causing differing extents of thoracic collapse (Piscitelli et al., 2010). It was found that the lung size will be reduced in cetaceans that undergo deeper dives and there will be an increase in the thoracic mobility. The lungs of larger whales were found to possess extremely heavy myoelastic bundles in the air sacs and alvolar membranes that were not found in much smaller cetacea (Wislocki, 1942). Conclusion The evolution of respiratory systems has been an extremely specific process that has showed both gradual, and rapid changes throughout the many lineages of the animal kingdom in order to encorporate universal requirements, as well as accessory breathing mechanisms (Weibel, 1984). Respiration is a vital life process required for survival and it is essential that gas exchange is as efficient as possible in order to allow high oxygen-demanding aerobic activities to take place when necessary (Perry, 1988). Each respiratory system may have a variety of additional mechanisms, uncinate processes, that assist in the breathing mechanics to enable the ease of transporting larger volumes of air within each system (Codd et al., 2008). The pulmonary surfactant system is of great importance, as it allows the successful existance of such mechanisms by preventing collapse of respiratory surfaces, as well as aiding them by increasing lung compliance and reducing the resistance to air flow (Daniels and Orgeig, 2003). The evolution of efficient respiratory systems, when paired with other necessary adaptations, has provided a foundation for more complex body systems to develop to allow the utilisation of previously unexploited resources and niches, thus providing organisms advantages in the animal kingdom (Graham, 1997). Bibliography Ahlberg, P.E., Clack, J.A., 2006. Palaeontology: A firm step from water to land. Nature 440, 747-749. doi:10.1038/440747a Ap, S., La, F.-G., 2001. Ventilatory modes and mechanics of the hedgehog skate (Leucoraja erinacea): testing the continuous flow model. J. Exp. Biol. 204, 1577-1587. Brainerd, E.L., 1999. New perspectives on the evolution of lung ventilation mechanisms in vertebrates. Exp. 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